Cancer Prevention Tips

Look and Feel Younger

Here are some strategies which not only reduce your risk of cancers, but can also protect against heart disease, stroke, diabetes, other diseases … and keep you looking and feeling younger!

Don’t smoke or if you do smoke, quit!

Smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States and is a major contributor to cancers of the lung, head and neck, bladder and other organs.
Use of smokeless tobacco is not a safe substitute for smoking cigarettes. So-called spit tobacco is linked to cancers of the mouth and pharynx.

Protect yourself from the sun.

Avoid sunlight during the hours between 10 a.m.-2 p.m., when rays are strongest. Wear protective hats and clothing. Use broad-spectrum sunscreen (protects against UVB and UVA rays) with a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15. Avoid tanning and sunlamps.

Maintain a healthy body weight.

Get moving!

Be moderately active at least 30 minutes on five or more days each week. To reduce the risk of breast or colon cancer, even more exercise may be better. But the most important change you can make is to move from sedentary to incorporating even a little activity into our daily routine.

If you choose to drink alcohol, do so in moderation.

Ovarian Cancer Contact Information

Ovarian Cancer National Alliance •
910 17th Street,
N.W., Suite 1190 • ‘
Washington, D.C. 20006
(202) 331-1332 •
toll-free: 1-866-399-6262 •
fax: (202) 331-2292 •
ocna@ovariancancer.org

Soy may lessen risk of endometrial, ovarian cancers

NEW YORK (Reuters Health) - Women who eat more soy-based foods than average may have less risk for certain cancers in the ovaries and the lining of the uterus, according to the combined findings of a few studies.

The uterine lining cancers - also known as endometrial cancer - and the ovarian cancer are all known to be affected by hormones such as estrogen, which are mimicked by compounds in soy. While some soy compounds that act like estrogen are linked to a higher rate of breast cancer, studies have suggested the opposite for endometrial and ovarian cancer.

The new report, in BJOG, An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, hints that odds of developing these cancers may be 40 percent lower among women who eat the highest amounts of soy-based foods.

One of the authors of the new analysis, Dr. Kwon Myung, at the National Cancer Center in Goyang, Korea, told Reuters Health that the data is too preliminary to draw any firm conclusions.

The National Cancer Institute estimates that more than 21,000 women will be diagnosed with ovarian cancer and more than 14,000 women will die of it in 2009. About 42,000 women will be diagnosed with endometrial cancer, according to the Institute, and about 8,000 will die of it.

The seven studies Myung's team reviewed - they rejected others that were of poorer quality -- included more than 169,000 women, of whom 3,516 had one of the two cancers. Most of the studies evaluated the intake of soy or soy components from foods such as legumes, soy curd, or soy protein.

Still, Myung said confirmation of the findings would require "a higher level of evidence," and scientists have yet to determine the optimal amount of soy-based foods.

Cancer Center Wins Role In National Clinical Trials Campaign

Hoping to speed new cancer treatments to patients, the National Institutes of Health and five major drug makers today announced $6 million in grants to six cancer centers to improve patient participation in early clinical trials, the studies that determine whether a new therapy is safe and effective. UC Davis Cancer Center, the only center in California to receive one of the grants, was awarded funding for a $1.1 million proposal aimed at overcoming barriers to trial participation.

The grants were awarded by the National Institutes of Health through the National Cancer Institute, in partnership with Aventis, Bristol-Meyers-Squibb, GlaxoSmithKline, Eli Lilly and Novartis Pharmaceuticals. Other grant recipients are Massachusetts General Hospital (Harvard University), University of Colorado Comprehensive Cancer Center, Washington University in St. Louis, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute and Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center.

Overall, only 3 percent of cancer patients participate in trials, a rate that has not improved in more than two decades. Low participation rates prolong drug development and delay patient access to potentially effective new agents.

“We hope our study will play a part in accelerating the pace of clinical trials research nationally,� said Primo N. Lara, Jr., associate professor of medicine at UC Davis Cancer Center and principal investigator of the barriers study.
Lara’s study seeks to combat three major barriers to clinical trial participation: concerns about health coverage; restrictive eligibility criteria; and breakdowns in communication among patients, families and health care providers.

To overcome the first barrier, Lara plans to mount a mass media campaign to raise awareness of SB 37, a 2001 law authored by Sen. Jackie Speier (D-Hillsborough) that requires private health insurers in California to pay for routine medical costs associated with clinical trials. The study will take place in two cities, Sacramento and San Diego. Collaborators include the Cancer Information Service/Northern California Cancer Center, Association of Northern California Oncologists, Veterans Health Administration of Northern California and the UC Davis Primary Care Network. If successful, the mass media campaign could be used throughout California and in the 13 other states that have laws similar to SB 37.

Derick Lau, associate professor of medicine at UC Davis Cancer Center, will work with Lara to address the second barrier, restrictive eligibility criteria. The cancer specialists plan to evaluate a unique clinical trial model that relaxes certain eligibility criteria and enhances patient access to investigational new agents. Debora Paterniti, assistant professor at the UC Davis Center for Health Services Research in Primary Care, will lead the third arm of the study. She and her co-investigators will design and test an intervention intended to prevent communication breakdowns as patients go through cancer treatment.

UC Davis Cancer Center’s grant was announced at back-to-back press conferences in Sacramento and Washington, D.C. Tommy Thompson, U.S. secretary of health and human services, Elias Zerhouni, director of the National Institutes of Health, and Andrew von Eschenbach, director of the National Cancer Institute, made the announcement in the capital.

The public-private campaign to increase enrollment in clinical trials is an effort of the Association of American Cancer Institutes, in collaboration with the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health and the Friends of Cancer Research, a non-profit organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., that mobilizes public support for cancer research funding.

Cancer Centers World List And Adress

* ALABAMA

UAB Comprehensive Cancer Center
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Edward E. Partridge, M.D.
Director

1802 Sixth Avenue South, NP 2555
Birmingham, Alabama 35294-3300
Tel: (205) 934-5077
Fax: (205) 975-7428

* ARIZONA

Arizona Cancer Center
University of Arizona
David S. Alberts, M.D.
Director

1515 North Campbell Avenue
P.O. Box 245024
Tucson, Arizona 85724
Tel: (520) 626-7685
Fax: (520) 626-6898

* CALIFORNIA

City of Hope National Medical Center
Beckman Research Institute
Michael A. Friedman, M.D.
Director

1500 East Duarte Road
Duarte, California 91010-3000
Tel: (626) 256-HOPE (4673)
Fax: (626) 930-5394

Salk Institute Cancer Center
Salk Institute
Tony Hunter, Ph.D.
Director

10010 North Torrey Pines Road
La Jolla, California 92037
Tel: (858) 453-4100 X 1385
Fax: (858) 457-4765

The Burnham Institute
Kristiina Vuori, M.D., Ph.D.
Director

10901 North Torrey Pines Road
La Jolla, California 92037
Tel: (858) 646-3100
Fax: (858) 713-6274

Moores Cancer Center
University of California, San Diego
Dennis A. Carson, M.D.
Director

3855 Health Sciences Drive, Room 2247
La Jolla, California 92093-0658
Tel: (858) 822-1222
Fax: (858) 822-1207

Stanford Cancer Center
Stanford University
Beverly S. Mitchell, M.D.
Director

800 Welch Road, Room 284
Stanford, CA 94305-5796
Tel: (650) 736-1808
Fax: (650) 736-0607

UC Davis Cancer Center
University of California, Davis
Ralph W. deVere White, M.D.
Director

4501 X Street, Suite 3003
Sacramento, California 95817
Tel: (916) 734-5800
Fax: (916) 451-4464

* DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center
at Georgetown University
Louis M. Weiner, M.D.
Director

3970 Reservoir Road, N.W.
Research Bldg., Suite E501
Washington, DC 20057
Tel: (202) 687-2110
Fax: (202) 687-6402

* FLORIDA

H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute
at the University of South Florida
William S. Dalton, Ph.D., M.D.
CEO & Center Director

12902 Magnolia Drive, MCC-CEO
Tampa, Florida 33612-9497
Tel: (813) 615-4261
Fax: (813) 615-4258

* GEORGIA

Winship Cancer Institute
at Emory University
Walter J. Curran, M.D.
Director

1365C Clifton Road
Atlanta, Georgia 30322
Tel: (404) 778-5669
(1-888-WINSHIP)
Fax: (404) 778-5048

* HAWAII

Cancer Research Center of Hawaii
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Michele Carbone, M.D., Ph.D.
Director

651 Ilalo Street, BSB 231-H
Honolulu, Hawaii 96813
Tel: (808) 440-4596
Fax: (808) 587-0790

* ILLINOIS

University of Chicago Cancer Research Center
Michelle Le Beau, Ph.D.
Director

5841 South Maryland Avenue, MC 2115
Chicago, Illinois 60637-1470
Tel: (773) 702-6180
Fax: (773) 702-9311

UK Women's Basketball Visits Markey Cancer Center

Fresh off a 72-63 victory over Arkansas on Sunday, the Kentucky women's basketball team used their day off to spend two hours Monday afternoon visiting patients at one of the nation's premier cancer research and patient care facilities, the Markey Cancer Center in Lexington, Ky.

"It was an unbelievable day for us," sophomore guard Carly Morrow said. "We went to try and cheer these cancer patients up and instead they ended up making us laugh and brightening our day. Visiting the Markey Cancer Center really puts everything in perspective. Basketball is important but not as important as what these people are going through everyday battling this tough disease."

The team, along with the Wildcat, handed out autographed posters and rally towels to the patients.

"We hope the rally towels inspire them to never give up and rally them to get better," sophomore center Catina Bett said. "The women and men we visited were amazing and this trip brought our team closer together, too."

World Cancer Centers

Alabama

* University of Alabama at Birmingham Comprehensive Cancer Center, Birmingham

Arizona

* University of Arizona Cancer Center
* University Medical Center, Tucson

Arkansas

* Arkansas Cancer Research Center, Little Rock
* Central Arkansas Radiation Therapy Institute (CARTI)

California

* Cedars-Sinai Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles
* The Burnham Institute, formerly the La Jolla Cancer Research Foundation, La Jolla
* Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles
* Stanford University Hospital, Stanford
* University of California, Davis Medical Center, Sacramento
* University of California, Irvine College, Irvin
* UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles
* University of California, San Francisco Medical Center
* University of Southern California Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center
Colorado
* University of Colorado Cancer Center, Denver

Connecticut

* The Yale Cancer Center, New Haven

Delaware

* Medical Center of Delaware, Wilmington

District of Columbia

* Washington Cancer Institute
* Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown

Florida

* Cornerstone Cancer Center, Florida
* H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center
* Shands Hospital at the University of Florida, Gainesville
* Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, Miami

Georgia

* Emory University Hospital, Atlanta

Hawaii

* Cancer Research Center of Hawaii, Manoa
* Cancer Institute of Maui, Maui

Illinois

* The Robert H. Lurie Cancer Center of Northwestern University, Chicago
* University of Chicago Cancer Research Center, Chicago
* University of Chicago Hospitals, Chicago
* Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago

Indiana

* Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis

Iowa

* University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City

Kansas

* University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City

Kentucky

* Markey Cancer Center

Louisiana

* Louisiana State University, Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, New Orlean
* Ochsner Cancer Center, New Orleans
* Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane
* University of Louisiana, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Shreveport

Maryland

* Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Frederick
* Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore
* University of Maryland, Greenebaum Cancer Center, Baltimore

Massachusetts

* Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston
* Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston
* Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston

Michigan

* Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit
* Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit
* William Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak
* University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor

Minnesota

* Mayo Clinic, Rochester
* University of Minnesota Cancer Center, Minneapolis

Missouri

* Barnes-Jewish Hospital, St. Louis

New Hampshire

* The Norris Cotton Cancer Center

New Jessy

* Robert Wood Johnson Medical School Cancer Institute, New Brunswick

New Mexico

* University of New Mexico Cancer Research and Treatment Center

New York

* Albert Einstein Cancer Center, Brooklyn
* Columbia-Presbyterian Cancer Center, New York
* Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York
* Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York
* New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center
* New York University, Kaplan Cancer Center, New York
* Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo
* University of Rochester Cancer Center, Rochester

North Carolina

* UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center
* Duke University Medical Center, Durham
* North Carolina Baptist Hospital, Winston-Salem

Nebraska

* University of Nebraska Medical Center

Ohio

* Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland
* The Toledo Hospital, Toledo
* The Ohio State University, James Cancer Hospital, Columbus
* University Hospitals of Cleveland, Cleveland

Oregon

* Oregon Health Science University Hospital, Portland

Pennsylvania

* Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh
* Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
* Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia
* University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center
* Pittsburgh Cancer Institute
* Thomas Jefferson University, Kimmel Cancer Center, Philadelphia
* Wistar Institute Cancer Center, Philadelphia

South Carolina

* Hollings Cancer Center, Charleston
* Medical University of South Carolina Department of Radiation Oncology

Tennessee

* St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis
* Vanderbilt University Hospital and Clinic, Nashville

Texas

* Arlington Cancer Center, Arlington
* The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston

Utah

* University of Utah, Huntsman Cancer Institute, Salt Lake City
* Vermont
* Vermont Comprehensive Cancer Center, Burlington
* Vermont Regional Cancer Center

Virginia

* University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville
* Massey Cancer Center, Richmond

Washington

* University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle
* Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle

Wisconsin

* University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison
* University of Wisconsin Comprehensive Cancer Center, Houston

Top 10 Cancer Centers of United States

* Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York

* University of Texas, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas

* Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland

* Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.

* Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Mass

* Duke University Medical Center, Durham, N.C.

* Stanford University Hospital, Stanford, Calif.

* University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Wash.

* University of Chicago Hospitals, Chicago, Illi.

* UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, Calif.

* Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York

Allopathic Treatment

Early stages of cervical dysplasia may require only frequent reevaluation to monitor progression or regression of the abnormal cells. Regression of abnormal cells may occur due to the immune response or lifestyle changes, such as discontinuing smoking or oral contraceptive use. In more advanced cases, the cervical lining may be removed via cautery, freezing or laser procedures.
Age, overall health status, and the presence of other abnormal findings will impact on the selection of most appropriate treatment plan for uterine cancer. Surgery may be presented as a treatment option for invasive cancer. Extent of the surgical procedures will depend upon the stage of the cancer. A hysterectomy, lymphadenectomy, or total pelvic exenteration may be recommended. Radiation therapy may be offered instead of or in addition to surgical removal of the affected tissues. Depending on the individual's disease stage, and the response and tolerance to the radiation, treatment may be provided by external beams directed over the pelvis, or by the insertion of radium tubes into the uterus and / or vagina. Chemotherapy may also be recommended, involving the infusion of tumorfighting drugs directly into the circulatory system.

Causes, Incidence, And Risk Factors

Endometrial cancer is the most common type of uterine cancer. Although the exact cause of endometrial cancer is unknown, increased levels of estrogen appear to play a role. Estrogen helps stimulate the buildup of the lining of the uterus. Studies have shown that high levels of estrogen in animals result in excessive endometrial growth and cancer.

Most cases of endometrial cancer occur between the ages of 60 and 70 years, but a few cases may occur before age 40.

The following increase your risk of endometrial cancer:

• Diabetes

• Estrogen replacement therapy without the use of progesterone

• History of endometrial polyps or other benign growths of the uterine lining

• Infertility (inability to become pregnant)

• Tamoxifen, a drug for breast cancer treatment

• Never being pregnant

• Obesity

• Starting menstruation at an early age (before age 12)

• Starting menopause after age 50

Associated conditions include the following:

• Colon or breast cancer

• Hypertension

• Polycystic ovarian disease

Treatment

After cervical dysplasia has been found, several herbal remedies and supplements may be helpful. Practitioners of herbal medicine refer to this class of herbs as emmenagogues. It includes supplements such as squawvine, motherwort, true unicorn, false unicorn, black cohosh, and blessed thistle. Studies have shown that as many as 67% of women with cervical dysplasia are deficient in various nutrients, including folate, beta-carotene, selenium, and vitamins B6 and C. While these studies make no claim that taking a multivitamin or mineral supplement can reverse advanced cervical dysplasia, taking these supplements preventively may make sense.

The woman with uterine cancer will also benefit from nutritional supplements and a diet aimed at strengthening the immune system. Echinacea and garlic supplements may not only have positive effects on immunities, but also counteract the side effects of cancer treatment. Many trace elements, flavonoids, and other phytochemicals are provided by eating a well balanced diet that may not be provided in a pill. Even with relatively low levels of dietary intake, shiitake mushrooms, lentinus edodes, laminaria sea vegetables, and kombu kelp are believed to have anti-cancer properties. The use of any supplements or specific dietary modification should be discussed with the physician treating the cancer in order to avoid any undesirable drug interactions or side effects.

Research emphatically supports the mind-body connection when considering the health of the individual with cancer. Studies have also shown the positive effects of imagery on boosting immunities and natural killer cells. Visualization of the dominant white blood cells successfully attacking weak cancer cells can not only have a positive effect on the mood and mental status, but may also shrink tumors and extend the life of a patient with cancer. Laughter has also been found to enhance immunities and stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, pituitary gland, and the hormones that reduce stress, inflammation, and pain.

In addition to the well known effects of massage for relaxation and stress reduction, there are other physiologic effects that may help the individual with cancer. Massage may slow the body's release of the stress hormone cortisol, decreasing anxiety and allowing for more effective periods of sleep and regeneration. Massage has also been found to increase the production of serotonin, which can improve overall mood and immune status.

Daily Cancer News

CancerConsultants provides summaries of new treatment strategies as they are discovered and reported by cancer physicians around the world. Our medical staff attends medical meetings worldwide and reviews medical literature daily to ensure appropriate news is provided to cancer patients and their families in a timely manner.

News of the results of recent clinical trials evaluating cancer therapies and supportive care strategies serve to educate patients regarding new treatment strategies for cancer and facilitate discussions with their doctor. Development of new cancer treatments usually begins in patients with recurrent or metastatic cancers. Once the new treatment appears effective, it is applied to earlier stages of the disease or to patients at higher risk of treatment failure.

The promise of cancer research

Doctors all over the country are conducting many types of clinical trials, research studies in which people take part voluntarily. Many treatment studies for women with uterine cancer are under way. Research has already led to advances, and researchers continue to search for more effective approaches.

Patients who take part in clinical trials have the first chance to benefit from treatments that have shown promise in earlier research. They also make an important contribution to medical science by helping doctors learn more about the disease. Although clinical trials may pose some risks, researchers take many very careful steps to protect people who take part.

In a large trial with hundreds of women, doctors are studying a less extensive method of surgery to remove the uterus. Normally, the doctor makes an incision in the abdomen to remove the uterus. In this study, doctors use a laparoscope (a lighted tube) to help remove the uterus through the vagina. Also, the doctor can use the laparoscope to help remove the ovaries and lymph nodes and to look into the abdomen for signs of cancer.

Other researchers are looking at the effectiveness of radiation therapy after surgery, as well as at the combination of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Other trials are studying new drugs, new drug combinations, and biological therapies. Some of these studies are designed to find ways to reduce the side effects of treatment and to improve the quality of women's lives.

A woman who is interested in being part of a clinical trial should talk with her doctor.

Doctors use two types of radiation therapy to treat uterine cancer

* External radiation: In external radiation therapy, a large machine outside the body is used to aim radiation at the tumor area. The woman is usually an outpatient in a hospital or clinic and receives external radiation 5 days a week for several weeks. This schedule helps protect healthy cells and tissue by spreading out the total dose of radiation. No radioactive materials are put into the body for external radiation therapy.

* Internal radiation: In internal radiation therapy, tiny tubes containing a radioactive substance are inserted through the vagina and left in place for a few days. The woman stays in the hospital during this treatment. To protect others from radiation exposure, the patient may not be able to have visitors or may have visitors only for a short period of time while the implant is in place. Once the implant is removed, the woman has no radioactivity in her body.

Methods of treatment

Women with uterine cancer have many treatment options. Most women with uterine cancer are treated with surgery. Some have radiation therapy. A smaller number of women may be treated with hormonal therapy. Some patients receive a combination of therapies.

The doctor is the best person to describe the treatment choices and discuss the expected results of treatment.

A woman may want to talk with her doctor about taking part in a clinical trial, a research study of new treatment methods. Clinical trials are an important option for women with all stages of uterine cancer. The section on "The Promise of Cancer Research" has more information about clinical trials.
Most women with uterine cancer have surgery to remove the uterus (hysterectomy) through an incision in the abdomen. The doctor also removes both fallopian tubes and both ovaries. (This procedure is called a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy.)

The doctor may also remove the lymph nodes near the tumor to see if they contain cancer. If cancer cells have reached the lymph nodes, it may mean that the disease has spread to other parts of the body. If cancer cells have not spread beyond the endometrium, the woman may not need to have any other treatment. The length of the hospital stay may vary from several days to a week.

In radiation therapy, high-energy rays are used to kill cancer cells. Like surgery, radiation therapy is a local therapy. It affects cancer cells only in the treated area.

Some women with Stage I, II, or III uterine cancer need both radiation therapy and surgery. They may have radiation before surgery to shrink the tumor or after surgery to destroy any cancer cells that remain in the area. Also, the doctor may suggest radiation treatments for the small number of women who cannot have surgery.

Diagnosis

If a woman has symptoms that suggest uterine cancer, her doctor may check general signs of health and may order blood and urine tests. The doctor also may perform one or more of the exams or tests described on the next pages.

* Pelvic exam - A woman has a pelvic exam to check the vagina, uterus, bladder, and rectum. The doctor feels these organs for any lumps or changes in their shape or size. To see the upper part of the vagina and the cervix, the doctor inserts an instrument called a speculum into the vagina.

* Pap test - The doctor collects cells from the cervix and upper vagina. A medical laboratory checks for abnormal cells. Although the Pap test can detect cancer of the cervix, cells from inside the uterus usually do not show up on a Pap test. This is why the doctor collects samples of cells from inside the uterus in a procedure called a biopsy.

* Transvaginal ultrasound - The doctor inserts an instrument into the vagina. The instrument aims high-frequency sound waves at the uterus. The pattern of the echoes they produce creates a picture. If the endometrium looks too thick, the doctor can do a biopsy.

* Biopsy - The doctor removes a sample of tissue from the uterine lining. This usually can be done in the doctor's office. In some cases, however, a woman may need to have a dilation and curettage (D & C). A D & C is usually done as same-day surgery with anesthesia in a hospital. A pathologist examines the tissue to check for cancer cells, hyperplasia, and other conditions. For a short time after the biopsy, some women have cramps and vaginal bleeding.

Who is at risk for uterine cancer

No one knows the exact causes of uterine cancer. However, it is clear that this disease is not contagious. No one can "catch" cancer from another person.

Women who get this disease are more likely than other women to have certain risk factors. A risk factor is something that increases a person's chance of developing the disease.

Most women who have known risk factors do not get uterine cancer. On the other hand, many who do get this disease have none of these factors. Doctors can seldom explain why one woman gets uterine cancer and another does not.

Studies have found the following risk factors

* Age. Cancer of the uterus occurs mostly in women over age 50.

* Endometrial hyperplasia. The risk of uterine cancer is higher if a woman has endometrial hyperplasia. This condition and its treatment are described above.

* Hormone replacement therapy (HRT). HRT is used to control the symptoms of menopause, to prevent osteoporosis (thinning of the bones), and to reduce the risk of heart disease or stroke.

Women who use estrogen without progesterone have an increased risk of uterine cancer. Long-term use and large doses of estrogen seem to increase this risk. Women who use a combination of estrogen and progesterone have a lower risk of uterine cancer than women who use estrogen alone. The progesterone protects the uterus.

Women should discuss the benefits and risks of HRT with their doctor. Also, having regular checkups while taking HRT may improve the chance that the doctor will find uterine cancer at an early stage, if it does develop.

* Obesity and related conditions. The body makes some of its estrogen in fatty tissue. That's why obese women are more likely than thin women to have higher levels of estrogen in their bodies. High levels of estrogen may be the reason that obese women have an increased risk of developing uterine cancer. The risk of this disease is also higher in women with diabetes or high blood pressure (conditions that occur in many obese women).

* Tamoxifen. Women taking the drug tamoxifen to prevent or treat breast cancer have an increased risk of uterine cancer. This risk appears to be related to the estrogen-like effect of this drug on the uterus. Doctors monitor women taking tamoxifen for possible signs or symptoms of uterine cancer.

The benefits of tamoxifen to treat breast cancer outweigh the risk of developing other cancers. Still, each woman is different. Any woman considering taking tamoxifen should discuss with the doctor her personal and family medical history and her concerns.

* Race. White women are more likely than African-American women to get uterine cancer.

* Colorectal cancer. Women who have had an inherited form of colorectal cancer have a higher risk of developing uterine cancer than other women.

Other risk factors are related to how long a woman's body is exposed to estrogen. Women who have no children, begin menstruation at a very young age, or enter menopause late in life are exposed to estrogen longer and have a higher risk.

Women with known risk factors and those who are concerned about uterine cancer should ask their doctor about the symptoms to watch for and how often to have checkups. The doctor's advice will be based on the woman's age, medical history, and other factors.

Tumors can be benign or malignant

* Benign tumors are not cancer. Usually, doctors can remove them. Cells from benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body. In most cases, benign tumors do not come back after they are removed. Most important, benign tumors are rarely a threat to life.

* Malignant tumors are cancer. They are generally more serious and may be life threatening. Cancer cells can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs. Also, cancer cells can break away from a malignant tumor and enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system. That is how cancer cells spread from the original (primary) tumor to form new tumors in other organs. The spread of cancer is called metastasis.

When uterine cancer spreads (metastasizes) outside the uterus, cancer cells are often found in nearby lymph nodes, nerves, or blood vessels. If the cancer has reached the lymph nodes, cancer cells may have spread to other lymph nodes and other organs, such as the lungs, liver, and bones.

When cancer spreads from its original place to another part of the body, the new tumor has the same kind of abnormal cells and the same name as the primary tumor. For example, if cancer of the uterus spreads to the lungs, the cancer cells in the lungs are actually uterine cancer cells. The disease is metastatic uterine cancer, not lung cancer. It is treated as uterine cancer, not lung cancer. Doctors sometimes call the new tumor "distant" disease.

The most common type of cancer of the uterus begins in the lining (endometrium). It is called endometrial cancer, uterine cancer, or cancer of the uterus. In this booklet, we will use the terms uterine cancer or cancer of the uterus to refer to cancer that begins in the endometrium.

A different type of cancer, uterine sarcoma, develops in the muscle (myometrium). Cancer that begins in the cervix is also a different type of cancer.

Understanding cancer

Cancer is a group of many related diseases. All cancers begin in cells, the body's basic unit of life. Cells make up tissues, and tissues make up the organs of the body.

Normally, cells grow and divide to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old and die, new cells take their place.

Sometimes this orderly process goes wrong. New cells form when the body does not need them, and old cells do not die when they should. These extra cells can form a mass of tissue called a growth or tumor.

Uterine Cancer Information Center

Each year in the United States, approximately 40,000 women are diagnosed with uterine cancer (also known as endometrial cancer). It is estimated that there are more than 572,000 uterine cancer survivors in the US today.

In an effort to improve both survival and quality of life among women with uterine cancer, researchers have explored new approaches to surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and supportive care (care to manage cancer symptoms and treatment side effects).

Understanding uterine cancer treatment options, the role of different doctors specializing in the treatment of uterine cancer, and how and when to access new and innovative uterine cancer treatment options available through clinical trials is essential in order to achieve the best outcome from uterine cancer treatment.

The Cancer Consultants Uterine Cancer Information Center has been designed to help patients understand uterine cancer and uterine cancer treatment options while providing ongoing information, inspiration, support, and community to individuals affected by a diagnosis of uterine cancer.

CANCER TREATMENT

The following is a list of terms that descripe surgical procedures used in traeting cancer.

Cryosurgery

Maligant tissue is frozen and thus destroyed. This procedure is occasinonally used to treat bladder and prostatetumors.

Electrocauterization

Maligant tissue is destroyed by burning. Electrocauterization is often used in treating tumors of the rectum and colon, when surgical removal is not possible.

En bloc resection

Tumor is removed along with a large area of surrounding tissue containing lymph nodes. Modified radical mastectomy, colectomy, and gas-trectomy are examples.

Excisional biopsy

Removal of tumor and a margin of normal tissue. This procedure provides a specimen for diagnosis and may be curative for small tumors.

Exenteration

A wide resection involving removal of the tumor, its organ of origin, and all surrounding tissue in the body space. Pelvic exenteration may be performed to treat large primary tumors of the uterus.

Fulguration

Destruction of tissue by electric sparks generated by a high

Incisional biopsy

A piece of tumor is removed for examination to establish a diagnosis. A more extensive surgical procedure or other forms of treatment, such as chemotherapy or x – ray, may then be used to treat the bulk of the tumor.

MICROSCOPIC DESCRIPTIONS

Alveolar

Tumor cells from patterns resembling small, microscopic sacs; commonly found in tumors of muscle, bone, fat, and cartilarge.

Carcinoma in situ

Referring to localized tumor cells that have not invaded adjacent structures. Cancer of the cervix may begin as carcinoma in situ.

Diffuse

Spreading evenly throughout the affected tissue. Malignant lymphomas may display diffuse involvment of lymph nodes.

Dysplastic

Pertaining to abnormal formation of cells. These tumors display a highly abnormal but not clearly cancerous appearance. Dysplastic nevi (moles on skin) are an example.

Epidermoid

Resembling squamous epithelial cells (thin, plate-like), often occurring in the respiratory tract.

Follicular

Forming small, moicroscopic, gland-type sacs. Thyroid gland cancer is an example.

Nodular

Forming multiple areas of tightly packed clusters of cells with lightly populated areas in between. Maligant lymphomas may display a nodular pattern of lymph node involvement.

Papillary

Forming small, finger-like or nipple-like projections of cells. Bladder cancer may be described as papillary.

Pleomorphic

Composed of a varitey of types of cells. Mixed-cell tumors are examples.

Scirrhous

Densely packed (scirrhous means hard) tumors, overgrown with fibrous tissue; commonly found in breast or stomach cancers.

Undifferentiated

Lacking microscopic structures typical of normal mature cells.

Classification of Cancerous Tumors

It is possible to divide these types of cancer into three broad groups on the basis of histogenesis that is, by identifying the particular type of tissue (hist/o) from which the tumor cells arise ( -genesis ). These major groups are carcinomas , sarcomas , and mixed tissue tumors.

Carcinomas

Carcinomas, the Largest group , are solid Tumors that are derived from etithelial tissue that lines external and internal body surfaces, including skin , glands , and digestive , urinary , and reproductive organs.

Sarcomas

Sarcomas are less common (less than 5 percent of all malignant tumors ) than carcinomas and are derived from connective tissues in the body, such as bone, fat, muscle, cartilage, and bone marrow and from cells of the lymphatic system.


PATHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTIONS

The following terms are used to descripe the apperance of a maligant tumor, on either gross (visual) or on microscopic examination

Cystic

Forming large open spaces filled with fluid.Mucinous tumors are filled with mucus (thick, sticky fluid ), and serous tumors are filled with a thin, watery fluid resembling serum. The most common site of cystic tumors is in ovaries.

Fungating

Mushrooming pattern of growth in which tumor cells pile one on top another and project from a tissue surface. Tumors found in the colon are often of this type.

Inflammatory

Having the features of inflammation ; that is, redness, sweling, and heat. Inflammatory changes result from tumor blockage of the lymphatic drainage of the skin, as in breast cancer.

Medullary

Pertaining to large, soft, fleshy tumors. Thyroid and breast tumors may be medullary.

Necrotic

Containing dead tissue. Any type of tumor can outgrow its blood supply and undergo necrosis.

Polypoid

Growths that are like projecttions extending outward from a base. Sessile polypoid tumors extend from a broad base, and pedunculated polypoid tumors extend from a stem or stalk. Both benign and maligant tumors of the colon may grow as polyps

Ulcerating

Characterized by an open, exposed surface resulting from the death of overlying tissue. Ulcerating tumors are often found in the sromach, breast, colon, and skin.

Verrucous

Resembling a wart-like growth. Tumors of the gingiva (cheek ) are frequently verrucous.

Environmental Agents

Agents From the environment , such as chemicals drugs, depacco smoke, radiation, and viruses, can cause damage to DNA and thus produce cancer. These environmental agents are called carcinogens.

Heredity

Cancer may be caused not only by environmental factors but also by inherited factors examples are retinoblastoma (tumor of the retina of the eye ) polyposis coil syndrome (polyps that grow in the colon and rectum) and certain other forms of colon , breast , and kidney cancer

GENES IMPLICATED IN HEREDITARY CANCERS
Cancer	Gene	Chromosomal Location
Breast ; Ovarian	BRCA1	17q21
Breast	BRCA2	13q12-13
Polyposis Coil Sybdrome	APC	5q21
Li-Fraument(multiple cancers)	P53	17p13
Retinoblastoma	Rb1	13q14
Wilms tumor	WT1	11p13

The first number is the chromosome ; p is the short arm of the chromosome and q is the long arm of the chromosome ; the second number is the religion (band) of the chromosome

In many, it belived that these tumors arise because of inherited or acquired abnormalites in certain genes called suppressor genes. Examples of suppressor genes are the retinoblastoma gene (Rb-1) and the p53 gene